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Multimeter analog

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maybe you've seen this tool but do not yet know its function!
Function Multimeter is a measuring instrument used to measure voltage, electric current, and resistance (resistance). It is a general understanding of the multimeter, while the development multimeters can still be used for multiple functions such as measuring temperature, inductance, frequency, and so forth. There are also people who called AVO meter multimeter with the title, presumably A (ampere), V (volts), and O (ohms).
Analog multimeter is more widely used for everyday purposes, such as the TV or computer service person mostly uses an analog type this. Those advantages are easy reading with a more simple view. While the disadvantages are low accuracy, so for measurements requiring high accuracy should use a digital multimeter.

MEASURING RESISTANCE (resistor)


Select a range of OHM, and then the lead investigator touched the red and black and do zero setting by turning to zero button.
why? because in order to accurately measure time, attach the end of the resistor (iron) with a red wire black investigator, for the resistor can measure ac count once you are sure you'll be maual

measure the voltage Volt / Dc



measure the voltage Volt / Dc Estimate the voltage to be measured, for example 3.7 V battery handphonen put range on a higher scale to 10 dcv. investigator on the positive red and black on negative.kenapa musti higher? because it can damage the multitester.

measuring diode



With a range OHM x1 or X100 investigators k red (+) affixed to the cathode (no sign bracelet) and black (-) at the anode, the needle should be to the right. Investigators behind is red (+) to the anode and the black (-) to the cathode, the needle should not move. If this does not mean the possibility of defective diode.
This way can also be used to find out where the anode and cathode of a diode where the bracelet removed.

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switch (saklar )

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Several different switch, according to the form, function, and / or mode of operation. For example, buttons or button-press (push button) is a switch that operates in a way is pressed, and can perform two different functions, namely closing the circuit when pressed, or open a circuit when pressed. If the pressure is released or there is subsequent pressure, it will normalize back button to its original position and the circuit returns to the semula.sama Swit on / of mobile phone



SPST toggle switch

SPST switches are simple and commonly used, to change the status of outages (off) to the flame (on), which when pressed in one direction, so that the disconnect switch open circuit, and when pressed in the opposite direction, the switch connects the connection so that the circuit closes. The advantages of this switch is operated using a leg (liver)

SPST key switch


The switch comes in many forms. Functions to perform security (limited security). usually on your home phone, functions to restrict 0 to the time we want tlp hp / long distance can not or female friend could not telephone out completely receptive.



This example is like those used as the ignition switch is similar to a motorcycle and mobil.hampir ganbar above just a different function


Switch press (Saklar tekan)



Switch press, the button or button-press (push button) is a switch that operates in a way pressed, for example horn (bell) car / motorcycle


SPDT micro switch


Micro switches great shape depending on the needs of small-size l. Usually mounted on an arm which, when depressed due to hold make-click the switch so that the circuit closes.
if you ever dismantle a rice cooker switch is in its life

DPDT slide switch



Function slide switch is the same with the others connect and disconnect the flow of the different forms it is also a double slide switch


MPST (multi-pole single-throw) switch | push-button


Switches |-button double pole. Used to disconnect or connect the connecting multiple electrical paths at the same time



SPST DIP (dual in-line package) switches


This switch is generally used on the PCB (printed circuit board) | electronic printed circuit boards, to select different operating configurations.

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Reley

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Relay is.
is a component (series) electronics to decide or connecting a circuit, which is similar electronic switches, winding, and the pivot rod of iron. work work automatically use this relay in the electronic devices are numerous. can be used as a remote control device as a controller Relay Especially in devices that are electronically or automatically. Examples in Television, Radio, automatic lights and others.

How these components work begins when the flow of electrical current through the coil, and then create a magnetic field around it so it can change the position switch is in the it relay , resulting in greater electrical current. This is where the virtues of this simple component is the minimal form can produce a greater flow.
Use of relays in electronic devices which have the advantage;
• Able to control its own current and voltage desired
• Able to maximize the amount of voltage until it reaches maximum limit
• Able to use both the switch and the coil is more than one, tailored to the needs of


electronic Relay is a switch that can be controlled from another electronic circuit. Relay consists of 3 main parts, namely:

1. coils: winding of relay
2. common: the part that is connected with the NC (in normal circumstances)
3. Contact: consists of the NC and NO

control logic in a system. As a "programming language" configuration used
the so-called ladder diagrams or relay ladder logic. Here are some hints about the relay
ladder logic (ladder diagram):
Special wiring diagram that is used as a programming language for
relay and switching control circuit.
LD No showing a series of hardware, but the flow of thinking.
LD Work flow based on logic, not the flow of voltage / current.

Relay Ladder Logic is divided into 3 components:

1. Input furnisher
2. Logic decision makers
3. Output of the work done


About Relay

Distinguishing NC with NO:
NC (Normally Closed): the switch of the relay which in normal circumstances (not given voltage relay) is connected with the common.
NO (Normally Open): the switch of the relay which in normal circumstances (not given voltage relay) is not connected with the common.

Parts of the relay can be known in 2 ways, namely:
1. with how to view the content of these relays
2. by using a multimeter (Ohm)

How to know the relay is still functioning or not can be done by providing the appropriate voltage to the relay is on the koilnya. If ignition still works  NC NC NO or NO, it can be said that the relay is still in good condition.


Connect the common and NO if you want a series of ON when the coil was given voltage.
Connect the common and NC if you want a series of ON when the coils are not given voltage.

Relay Types

• SPST - Single Pole Single Throw.
• SPDT - Single Pole Double Throw. Consists of 5 pins, namely: (2) coil, (1) common, (1) NC, (1) NO.
• DPST - Double Pole Single Throw. Equivalent with 2 SPST switches or relays.
• DPDT - Double Pole Double Throw. Equivalent with 2 SPDT switches or relays.
• QPDT - Quadruple Pole Double Throw. Often referred to as Quad Pole Double Throw, or 4PDT. Equivalent to 4 SPDT switches or relays DPDT relay or two. Consisting of 14 pins (including 2 pieces for the coil).

One of the main uses relay in the industrial world is to implement

Reley is an electrically driven switches, the radio transceiver is used to replace the turn of the flow of electricity from the receiver to the transmitter and replace the turn of the antenna from the receive to transmit.

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Induktor

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Inductor is a passive electronic component that is composed of wire windings. that can store energy in magnetic fields generated by electric currents pass through it. Inductor ability to store magnetic energy is determined by the inductance inductor includes components that can store electrical charges. Together with inductor capacitor can serve as a series resonator can resonate at certain frequencies.
Inductors are often used in analog circuits and signal processing.

Coil / coil is a air core, iron core or ferrite core.
The value / price of the inductor is called the basic unit of inductance with henry (H)

Function Inductors:

1. Storage of electric current in the form of a magnetic field
2. Holding currents bolak-balik/ac
3. Forwarding / pass direct current / dc
4. As a filter (filter)
5. As tuning (tuning)

Inductor type:
Coil is a coil of wire over a core. Depending on needs, which are widely used in radio is the air core and ferrite core

1. Fixed coil, namely inductor which has a price that's for sure. Usually expressed in a color code as applied to the resistor. The price is expressed in units mikrohenry (μH).
2.Variable coil, the coil with an inductance that can be changed-¬ change, changes are made by rotating the position of ferrite core. Such coils are widely used in adjustable frequency oscillator for ¬ set, coil shape is similar to the IF transformer.
3. Choke coil (coil damping), the coil used in the technique of high frequency signals.

Inductance formula

Coil cylinder





• L = inductance
• μ0 = permeability of vacuum
• K = coefficient Nagaoka
• N = number of coil
• r = radius of coil
• l = length of coil

Straight wire






• L = inductance
• l = length of wire
• d = diameter of wire

Short cylindrical air core coil






• L = inductance (μH)
• r = radius of coil (in)
• l = length of coil (in)
• N = number of coil

Winding layers of air core






• L = inductance (μH)
• r = mean radius of coil (in)
• l = length of coil (in)
• N = number of coil
• d = thickness of coil (in)

Flat spiral air core coil







• L = inductance
• r = mean radius of spiral
• N = number of coil
• d = thickness of winding

Toroid core






L = inductance
μ0 = permeability of vacuum
μr = relative permeability of core material
N = number of coil
r = radius of coils
D = she yards overall

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filter

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circuit filter (filter circuit) is a series that is designed only to allow a certain frequency range has a value of damping (attenuation) is small (referred to as the 'Pass Bands'), while in other frequency ranges have a very large damping values ​​(referred to as 'Attenuation Band' or 'Stop Bands').
A filter circuit can consist only of passive components and is commonly referred to as a passive filter circuit (Passive Filter Network). There is also a series of filters that use active components and commonly referred to as a series active filter (Filter Active Network). In this article will only discuss a series of passive filters only, while the active filter circuit will be discussed in a separate article.

For the purposes of filters that do not require a narrow bandwidth (not to SSB filter), use ceramic filter. Ceramic filters used in radio for the IF filter.
Ceramic filter is actually also have the ability as an oscillator or SSB filter, but the author does not recommend to use it as a SSB filter therefore a very wide bandwidth, far exceeding the permitted bandwidth in radio regulation.

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Crystal

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crystals are widely used from the start the radio, Handy Talky, tv, phone, etc.. at a high frequency generator (oscillator) for frequency oscillator can be maintained stable, in addition to a stable frequency, a crystal oscillator has a very narrow bandwidth. Crystals used in aircraft radio is mostly a piece of quartz crystal pieces. Resonant frequency depends on the thickness of the pieces, for example for a 7 MHz thickness of about 0.9 MM.
Oscillator RF (radio frequency power) is the main part of a transmitter. These sections specify the frequency of a transmitter, and therefore required an oscillator that is stable. In order to guarantee the stability of an oscillator used crystal that serves as a driver driving the oscillator. Limits on the frequency change should not be shifted more than 0.002% of the crystal frequency.
Crystal also has a very good temperature stability. Typically, the temperature coefficient of ± 50ppm crystal was dikisaran direntangan normal operating temperature of -20 ° C to +70 ° C. Comparing with the temperature coefficient of capacitors which can reach several percent. For applications that require a higher temperature stability, the crystal can be operated in a small oven temperature is always kept constant.

As we all know that a quartz crystal to provide the piezoelectric effect. Other piezoelectric material which is or the name of Rochelle Salt Potassium Sodium tartrate chemical properties, such crystals are mostly used for microphone or headphones to speakers.
To create a crystal with a high frequency (above 20 MHz) is rather difficult to make accurate thickness. Usually used for high frequency crystal with a frequency below, then the oscillator is given so that the output harmonic filter. Crystals that work according to the thickness of the pieces on crystal frequency called the fundamental crystal and crystal work 3 or 5 time called overtones.
Besides its use as an oscillator, microphone and speakers, the crystal is also used as a filter. Crystal filter consists of a series of ladder crystal filter or a series of lattice filters, crystal filters specifically designed to have three legs.
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Transformator (trafo)

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The transformer is a device used to convert electrical voltage alternating current (AC), transformers consists of 3 main components namely: the first source coil (primary), which acts as an input, the second coil (secondary), which act as outputs, and core iron which serves to strengthen the magnetic field (induction-electromagnetic) are produced.

Working principle of Transformer

under the laws of Ampere and Faraday's law working principle of a transformer is a transformer consists of a core, made ​​of iron plated and two coils (coil wire), the primary coil and secondary coil when the primary coil connected to the alternating voltage source, changes in electrical current in the primary coil causes a changing magnetic field. A changing magnetic field is strengthened by the presence of an iron and an iron core is delivered to the secondary coil, so that the ends of the secondary coil will arise failed induction. This effect is called mutual inductance (mutual inductance).










Power Trafo




Primary and secondary coils can be rolled up separately or can also be rolled composite. Primary and secondary coils can stand sendirisendiri or can become one is called autotrafo. Transformer coils are given in the middle, called TAP-called transformer center tap.


Transformer Coupling




Transformer coupling is used to continue the AC power accompanied by changes in impedance. We know that the roll of wire at a certain core, when the number of different reel, likely will give a different impedance. Just as the power transformer, primary and secondary can be rolled up separately or can also be rolled composite. A transformer with a tap when the roll before and after the tap tap symetris called a bifilar, when given two taps called trifilar.
How transformer bifilar winding is done by stacking two-wire and rolled with the same, then both ends are connected back (soldered). The connection is made ​​such that the two rolls before and after the tap has a roll of the same direction. Similarly to trifilar, conducted by stacking three wire.

In a transformer there is formula to calculate the number of primary and secondary winding for the output can be produced with low voltages and large currents.

Formula








Np = Number of primary winding

Ns = Number of secondary windings

Vp = Voltage Input (primary)

Vs = Voltage Output (secondary)

Ip = Primary Current (Input)

Is = Output Current (secondary)

Step-up transformer

Step-up transformer is a transformer that converts alternating low voltage becomes high, the transformer secondary winding has a number greater than the number of primary winding (Ns> Np). thus serves as Raising the voltage. The transformer is commonly encountered in power generation as Raising the voltage generated high voltage generator to be used in long distance transmission.

Step-down transformer

Step-down transformer that is opposed to step-up transformer, the transformer that converts high voltage alternating becomes low, the transformer has a primary coil winding number greater than the number of secondary windings (Np> Ns) serves as lowering voltage. Type transformers is very easy to find, especially in AC-DC adapter.

Pulse transformer

Transformer pulse transformer is specifically designed to provide the output pulse wave. This type transformer using the core material is saturated so quickly after the primary current reaches a certain point, magnetic flux stops changing. Because the emf induced in secondary winding is formed only if there is a change of magnetic flux, the transformer only when the core output is not saturated, ie when the current in primary winding turn.


Three-phase transformer

Three-phase transformer is actually a three transformers that are specifically linked to each other. Primary winding is usually connected in star (Y) and a secondary winding connected in delta (Δ).


Autotransformator

Transformer of this type consists of only one winding which continues in power, by tapping the middle. In this transformer, some primary winding is also a secondary winding. Phase current in the secondary winding is always opposite the primary flow, so to quote the same power secondary winding can be made ​​with wire that is thinner than ordinary transformer. The advantage of autotransformator is a small physical size and lower loss than other types of two loops. But this type transformers can not provide electrical isolation between the primary winding to secondary winding.


Autotransformator variable

Autotransformator variable is actually a common autotransformator lead center can be changed, providing primary-secondary winding ratio changing.


Isolation transformer

Isolation transformer has a secondary winding amount equal to the primary winding, so the secondary voltage is equal to the primary voltage. But in some designs, the secondary winding is made a little more to compensate for the loss. This transformer serves as insulation between two oppositely. For the audio application, the transformer of this type has been largely supplanted by the coupling capacitor
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IC (integrated circuit)

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what ic? maybe you've heard almost all electronic devices to use this! in it, because a lot of variety of form and function



(IC: integrated circuit) was developed by Jack Kilby, an engineer at TI (Texas Instruments) in 1958. IC combined three electronic components in a small silicon disc made ​​of quartz sand. Scientists later managed to fit more components into a single chip called a semiconductor.
Integrated Circuit (IC) is an electronic semiconductor components are packed into one small package, in it can contain tens, hundreds or thousands or even more basic electronic components consisting of a number of component resistors, transistors, diodes and other semiconductor components. The components that is in the form of a subsystem integrated IC (integrated circuit), who works for a particular purpose, but it is also possible be used for other purposes.

IC can be many different shapes, there are three such LM7805-legged, there's nothing like a transistor with a foot lot eg LM741. There is also a comb-like (single in line), the other is a rectangular shape with legs legs are on the four sides, but most of the IC form of dual in-line (DIL).
IC that is round and dual in-line, foot massage his legs were numbered in the order in a clockwise direction, foot ONE number given marked point or a notch.
Each IC is marked with a number type, this number usually indicates the type of IC, so if the number is the same as the IC function. Other code indicates the manufacturer, such as type 741 operational amplifier can come up with a sign uA741, LM ¬ 741, MC741, RM741 SN72741 or for mobile phone use ic china MTK cpu 6223,6225,6235 and so on.
Listen
Read phonetically

A group called the IC linear ICs, such as IC regulator, Operational Amplfier, audio amplifiers and so forth. Meanwhile, another IC group called digital IC such as NAND, NOR, OR, AND EXOR, BCD to seven segment decoder and so forth.
This type of IC which is now developed and widely used is Transistor-Transistor Logic ¬ (TTL) and Complimentary Metal Oxide Semiconductor (CMOS).
Type CMOS is widely available in the market is families 4000, for example 4049, 4050 and so forth. Type TTL marked with numbers beginning 54 or 74. 54 Prefix indicating the military requirement is the ability to work from 54 to 125C temperature. While the prefix 74 indicates the commercial terms is able to work at a temperature of 0 to 70C.
TTL numbering was done with 2, 3 or 4 digit number followed prefixnya, for example 7400, 74 192 and so forth. The letters in between the prefix and suffix signifies subfamilynya. For example the U.S. (Advance Schottkey), ALS (Advanced Low Power Schottkey), H (High Speed), L (Low Speed), LS (Low Power Schottkey) and S (Schottkey).
Compared with using a transistor circuit with a circuit using the IC, IC tend to use more practical and cost is relatively lighter.
At this time have developed many types of IC, to hundreds of species that can not be discussed in general. To use our IC IC must have vademicum issued by the manufacturer's factory. Each type of IC has its own explanation of his own about the nature and how to use them.
If we turn the page vademicum IC, we will see various symbols IC logic. Symbolic meaning of this symbol we will study when it began experimenting with digital ICs.

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Transistor

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The transistor includes a simple arrangement of components when compared with Integrated Circuit (IC) is a development of the Vacuum Tube (Vacuum Tube). The main function of a transistor is a signal booster and as an electronic switch. Compared with Vacuum tubes, transistors have advantages such as the physical form of smaller and less power used. In principle, a transistorconsists of of two diodes are put together . In order for a transistor to work, to the foot of his legs should be given voltage, this voltage is called the bias voltage. Base, emitter given forward voltage, while the collector base is given a reverse voltage. The nature of the transistor is that between the collector and emitter will be no current (transistor will deliver) when there is base current. The bigger the base the greater flows connecting (penghatarannya)in Indonesian

Transistors can be used among others to:
1. amplifier current, voltage and power (AC and DC)
2.Sebagai rectifier
3.Sebagai mixer
4.Sebagai oscillator
5.Sebagai switch

Various forms of transistors that were sold in the market, packaging sheath material also there are various kinds such as metal sheath, ceramic and there are sheathed polyester. Transistors usually have three legs, feet first is called the base, the next leg is called the collector and the third leg is called the emitter.



Transistor is divided into two types of NPN and PNP. To distinguish the type NPN or PNP transistor, you can see on the arrow on the emitter leg.

Howspecify the legs of the transistor :



Base

• Use Ohm Meter scale x1 or x10
• Create one foot as a benchmark, connect one by one with the other foot, if the needle stir all, the foot is the base standard.
• If the foot benchmark connect with a red pen (Ohm Meter), then the type is PNP
If the foot benchmark connect with black pen (Ohm Meter), then the type is NPN
Collector and emitter
• Use Ohm Meter x10 scale K?
• Measure / connect the foot that is not the base, marked the needle move a little or not moving, the feet that gets the same pen with the base is Colektor legs and rest the other leg is the emitter.
to seek colektor and emitter stay where we measure a smaller hambatanya that emitor.Catatan: If the base is located on the edge of the foot, the foot was in tengah.dipersilahkan Feet Colektor collectors are usually connected with the body transistor when the transistor is dipacking use metal. If the transistor dipacking with plastic so the collector are usually connected with the transistor body to be linked to cooling.

If the transistor is not connected with the coolant, it should be sought first leg base. If you've met, amid what is now his base foot lane? If the base middle leg, usually the collector is at the right. If the base edge then the collector is in the middle.
Other types of transistors are Field Effect Transistors (FET) or field effect transistors and Metal Oxide Silicon FET (MOSFET). In general, the transistor can be differentiated based on many categories:
• semiconductor material: Germanium, Silicon, Gallium arsenide
• Physical Packaging: Through Hole Metal, Plastic Through Hole, Surface Mount, IC, etc.
• Type: UJT, BJT, JFET, IGFET (MOSFET), IGBT, HBT, MISFET, VMOSFET, MESFET, HEMT, etc.
• Polarity: NPN or N-channel, PNP or P-channel
• Maximum capacity: Low Power, Medium Power, High Power
• Maximum working frequency: Low, Medium, or High Frequency, RF transistors, Microwave, etc.
Applications: Amplifiers, Switches, General Purpose, Audio, High Voltage, etc. In general, the transistor has three terminals. Voltage or current that is placed on one terminal set larger currents through two other terminals. Transistors are the essential components in modern electronic world. In analog circuitry, the transistor used in the amplifier (booster). Series analog surround speakers, stable electricity sources, and radio signal amplifier. In digital circuits, transistors used as high-speed switch. Some transistors can also be arranged in such a way as to function as logic gates, memory and other components.

Junktion Union Transistors (UJT)




Junktion Union Transistors (UJT) is a transistor having one emitter and two base leg. Functionality of this transistor is mainly for electronic switches. There are two types of UJT UJT UJT Canal Canal N and P.

Field Effect Transistor (FET)



Field Effect Transistor (FET) is a special type of transistor. Unlike ordinary transistor, which will deliver if given the currents in the base, the type FET transistor will deliver if given voltage (not current). Kakikakinya be named Gate (G), Drain (D) and Source (S).
Some advantages compared to the FET transistor is common among other big gains, as well as a low sigh. Due to the higher price of FET transistor, only used on the part ¬ section does require. The physical shape FET there is a wide range similar to the transistor.
Like the transistor, there are two types of FET ie ¬ Canal Canal N and P. Unless there is some kind of FET is Junktion FET (JFET) and Metal Oxide Semiconductor FET (MOSFET).

Metal Oxide Semiconductor FET (MOSFET)



Metal Oxide Semiconductor FET (MOSFET) is a type FET having a drain, a source and one or two Gate. MOSFET has a very high input impedance. Given a high enough price, then the MOSFET is used only on the parts that really need it. Its use such as RF amplifier in a receiver to obtain a high amplification with low sigh.








In packaging and assembly by using MOSFET need diperhatiakan that these components are not resistant to electrostatic, packaged using tinfoil, pematriannya using a special type of solder for soldering the MOSFET.
Like the FET, there are two kinds of MOSFET is P Canal and Canal N.

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Dioda

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Diodes are the simplest semiconductor components, it is composed of two (2) the cathode and anode electrodes. that serves as a tool to limit the movement of electricity, which diode only allows electricity to flow in one direction only and prevents flow in the opposite direction. (as a rectifier),
Ends of the body diode is usually given the undersigned, a bracelet or a point, which marks the location of the cathode.
When the anode potential given the positive and negative cathode, said diode be forward biased and if the contrary, is said to be a reverse biased diode. At forward bias, the difference in voltage between the cathode and the anode is called the threshold voltage or the knee voltage. Large voltage depends on the type of diode, can be 0.2V, 0.6V and so forth.
When the diodes are reverse biased (which vary depending on supply voltage voltagenya) voltage is called voltage is reversed. This reverse voltage should not exceed a certain price, this price is called the breakdown voltage, such as type 1N4001 diode sebasar 50V.
Germanium diode types such as type 1N4148 or 1N60 when given forward bias to continue the radio-frequency vibrations and when forward bias is removed, going to block the radio-frequency vibrations. The existence of these properties, diode types are used to switch.kinds of kinds of diodes and functions read


Suppliers' catalogues usually include tables of technical data for components such as LEDs. These tables contain a good deal of useful information in a compact form but they can be difficult to understand if you are not familiar with the abbreviations used. The table below shows typical technical data for some 5mm diameter round LEDs with diffused packages (plastic bodies). Only three columns are important and these are shown in bold. Please see below for explanations of the quantities. Type Colour IF max. VF typ. VF max. VR max. Luminous intensity Viewing angle Wavelength Standard Red 30mA 1.7V 2.1V 5V 5mcd @ 10mA 60° 660nm Standard Bright red 30mA 2.0V 2.5V 5V 80mcd @ 10mA 60° 625nm Standard Yellow 30mA 2.1V 2.5V 5V 32mcd @ 10mA 60° 590nm Standard Green 25mA 2.2V 2.5V 5V 32mcd @ 10mA 60° 565nm High intensity Blue 30mA 4.5V 5.5V 5V 60mcd @ 20mA 50° 430nm Super bright Red 30mA 1.85V 2.5V 5V 500mcd @ 20mA 60° 660nm Low current Red 30mA 1.7V 2.0V 5V 5mcd @ 2mA 60° 625nm IF max. Maximum forward current, forward just means with the LED connected correctly. VF typ. Typical forward voltage, VL in the LED resistor calculation. This is about 2V, except for blue and white LEDs for which it is about 4V. VF max. Maximum forward voltage. VR max. Maximum reverse voltage You can ignore this for LEDs connected the correct way round. Luminous intensity Brightness of the LED at the given current, mcd = millicandela. Viewing angle Standard LEDs have a viewing angle of 60°, others emit a narrower beam of about 30°. Wavelength The peak wavelength of the light emitted, this determines the colour of the LED. nm = nanometre.

According to the semi-conductor material used in manufacturing, there are 2 types of diodes:
1. Silicon diode: Made of silicone material.
2. Diode germanium: Made from germanium.

The types of diodes and their use:
- silicon diode: Widely used in power supply equipment as rectifier current, voltage shock safety and so on. Example: 1N4001, 1N4007, 1N5404 etc..
- Zener Diodes: Used to restrict / regulate the voltage. Example: 6.2 volt zener, 3.2 volt zener, etc..
- Diode Bridge: 4 pieces are assembled into a series diode bridge / bridge. Widely used in power supply circuit as a full wave rectifier (full wave rectifier). Example: B40C800, kiprox on motor vehicles and so on.

The diode assembly must be installed properly, should not be reversed. Physically foot cathode (K) is the foot close to sign bracelet found on her body. To find a diode is still good or has been damaged is to use AVO Meter. Position on the Ohm meter, you can forward (tap AVO + connected to the cathode and - to the anode) -> must be connected (moving needle), you can retreat -> should not be connected (the needle does not move). 'If and only if' the two criteria tsb. fulfilled all the diodes tsb. still good, but it is damaged (broken / leaking).

diode function and generally diodes can be used among others to:
1.safety
2 rectifier
3.Voltage regulator
4.Modulator
5.Controller frequency
6.Indikator
7.Switch

THE TYPES OF DIODE

Zener Diode
Zener Diode is a diode which has a nature that the reversal voltage (breakdown voltage) is very stable, this voltage is called the zener voltage. On top of the zener voltage, this diode will deliver electricity in two directions. Diodes are used as a voltage stabilizer or voltage regulator. These diodes form like ordinary diode, the difference can be seen only from the type written on bodynya and zener voltage seen at vademicum. Actually there is no difference in the basic structure of the zener, but similar to the diode. But by giving more number of doping at the junction of P and N, it turns out the diode breakdown voltage can be more quickly achieved. If the diode is usually only occurs on the voltage breakdown of hundreds of volts, the zener can occur in numbers of tens and units of volts. In the datasheet there who has a zener voltage VZ of 1.5 volts, 3.5 volts and so forth.

Diode (LED)

Another type of diode is the Light Emitting Diode (LED) that can emit light when a given forward bias. Diodes of this type are widely used as indicators and displays. For example, can be used for seven segments (display number).
Photo diode has another nature, which contrast with the LED is going to generate electric current when exposed to light. The amount of electrical current depending on the size of the incoming light. found that the electrons that hit the connection PN also release energy in the form of heat energy and light energy. LEDs are made to be more efficient if the issue of light. To mendapatkna light emission in semiconductors, doping use is the gallium, arsenic and phosphorus. Doping of different types of light produce different colors.

Calculating an LED resistor value

An LED must have a resistor connected in series to limit the current through the LED, otherwise it will burn out almost instantly.

The resistor value, R is given by:

R = (VS - VL) / I

VS = supply voltage
VL = LED voltage (usually 2V, but 4V for blue and white LEDs)
I = LED current (e.g. 10mA = 0.01A, or 20mA = 0.02A)
Make sure the LED current you choose is less than the maximum permitted and convert the current to amps (A) so the calculation will give the resistor value in ohms (ohm).
To convert mA to A divide the current in mA by 1000 because 1mA = 0.001A.

If the calculated value is not available choose the nearest standard resistor value which is greater, so that the current will be a little less than you chose. In fact you may wish to choose a greater resistor value to reduce the current (to increase battery life for example) but this will make the LED less bright.

For example
If the supply voltage VS = 9V, and you have a red LED (VL = 2V), requiring a current I = 20mA = 0.020A,
R = (9V - 2V) / 0.02A = 350ohm, so choose 390ohm (the nearest standard value which is greater).

Working out the LED resistor formula using Ohm's law
Ohm's law says that the resistance of the resistor, R = V/I, where:
V = voltage across the resistor (= VS - VL in this case)
I = the current through the resistor

So R = (VS - VL) / I

Diode bridge

diode bridge. This diode is a silicon diode which assembled into a bridge and packed into a single unitary component. In the market sold various forms of diode bridge with a variety of capacities. The size of the main bridge diodes are voltage and amperage maximum.














Photo diode


Photodioda is a diode that works based on the intensity of light, which if exposed to light so photodioda photodioda work like diodes in general, but if it does not get light then photodioda will act like a resistor with a large resistance value so that electrical current can not flow
Symbols and shapes photodioda similar to the LED, but the symbol photodioda direction of two arrows facing inwards. Photodioda widely used as a light sensor in the world of electronics, because it is sensitive to light. Photodioda used as a catcher light waves emitted by the Infrared. The amount of voltage or electrical current generated by photodioda depending on the size of the radiation emitted by infrared.

Dioda
Varactor

Varactor Diodes Like most components with a wire connector, diode capacitance also has a leak which affects the work at high frequency, external capacitance is usually smaller than 1 pF. Silicon diode that utilizes the effects of the changing capacitance is called the varactor diode. In many applications replace capacitor tuned mechanically, in other words varaktor mounted parallel with the inductor is a series resonant tank. By varying the voltage on the varactor riverse we can change the resonance frequency. Application varaktor diode is usually on the tuner that tuned using a voltage.

Dioda Variable

Variable Capacitance Diodes also called varicap diode or varactor diodes. The nature of this diode is reverse direction when they are paired according to the will act as a condenser. Capacitance depends on the incoming voltage. Diodes of this type are widely used in FM modulator and also on the VCO of a PLL (Phase Lock Loop).

Dioda Schottky

Schottky Diodes Schottky diodes using metal gold, silver or platinum on one side of the junction and silicon on the light bulb (usually type-n) on the other side. Such diodes are unipolar devices because free electrons are carriers of the majority on both sides of the junction. And Schottky diode has no emptying or storage charge layer, resulting in a switch he can flame and die more quickly than in bipolar diode. As a result, these tools can menyearahkan frequencies above 300 Mhz and far above the ability of bipolar diodes.

Dioda Recovery

Step-Recovery Diodes By reducing the doping level near the junction of the plant can make the step-recovery diode devices that use charge storage. During the forward conduction diode diodes behave as usual and when dibias this diode reverse conduction while emptying layer being configured and then all of a sudden reverse flow becomes zero. In this situation as if the diode suddenly open slingshot (snaps open) such as switches, and this is why the step-recovery diode is often called a diode snap. Step-recovery diodes are used in pulse and digital circuit to produce a very rapid pulse. Snap-off that suddenly can result in switching on-off less than 1 ns. This particular diode is also used in frequency multipliers.


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